The Aztec Empire's Demise - A Reexamination of the Spanish Conquest

The fall of the Aztec Empire was primarily an indigenous civil war, not a Spanish conquest: 80,000+ Tlaxcalan warriors plus 100,000+ fighters from other indigenous groups (Totonacs, Cholulans) formed the military force that defeated the Aztecs, while Spanish forces numbered only 600-3,000 soldiers playing a supporting role. The Tlaxcalans, who had resisted Aztec expansion for over a century, saw the Spanish as useful allies with military technology that could tip the balance in their long-standing conflict. Living in Mexico City among the ruins of Tenochtitlan, you realize the standard narrative of European conquistadors defeating a mighty empire through superior technology fundamentally misrepresents what actually happened: this was indigenous peoples making strategic decisions based on their own political calculations.

The Standard Narrative Is Wrong

The typical story goes like this: Hernán Cortés and a few hundred Spanish conquistadors arrived in Mexico, exploited indigenous superstitions, leveraged superior military technology, and conquered the Aztec Empire. It's a story of European superiority, indigenous naivety, and inevitable colonial domination.

The problem? It's largely fiction.

The Real Numbers: An Indigenous Civil War

Here's what actually happened: the fall of the Aztec Empire was primarily the result of internal indigenous conflict, not Spanish military superiority.

The Spanish Forces

Cortés arrived with somewhere between 600-3,000 Spanish soldiers, depending on the phase of the conquest. That's a tiny military force attempting to overthrow an empire of millions.

The Indigenous Allied Forces

The actual military force that defeated the Aztecs consisted of:

• 80,000+ Tlaxcalan warriors - The primary indigenous fighting force
• 100,000+ warriors from other indigenous groups - Including Totonacs, Cholulans, and others who had been subjugated or threatened by Aztec expansion
• A few thousand Spanish soldiers - A small component of the overall military force

This wasn't a Spanish conquest of the Aztecs. This was an indigenous coalition war against Aztec hegemony, with Spanish forces playing a supporting role.

The Tlaxcalans: The Missing Story

The Tlaxcalans are the key to understanding what actually happened, yet they're barely mentioned in most popular accounts of the conquest.

Who Were the Tlaxcalans?

The Tlaxcalans were an independent civilization that had resisted Aztec expansion for over a century. They were sophisticated, militarily powerful, and deeply resentful of Aztec imperialism.

When the Aztecs expanded their empire through conquest and tribute demands, the Tlaxcalans maintained their independence through constant military resistance. This created a century-long conflict that left the Tlaxcalans with both the military capacity and the motivation to overthrow their rivals.

Why They Allied with the Spanish

When Cortés arrived, the Tlaxcalans saw an opportunity. Here was a potential ally with some useful military technology and tactics that could tip the balance in their long-standing conflict with the Aztecs.

The Tlaxcalan decision to ally with the Spanish wasn't naive collaboration, it was strategic warfare. They were autonomous actors making calculated decisions based on their own political and military interests.

The Tribute System and Resentment

The Aztec Empire operated through a tribute system that created enormous resentment among subjugated peoples. Conquered cities and regions were forced to:

• Pay heavy tribute in goods, resources, and labor
• Provide victims for human sacrifice
• Accept Aztec political and religious authority
• Support Aztec military campaigns

This system created a large population of indigenous groups who had strong incentives to support anyone who might overthrow Aztec dominance. The Spanish arrival provided that opportunity.

The Technology Myth

Popular narratives emphasize Spanish technological advantages, horses, steel weapons, gunpowder. But these advantages were much more limited than typically portrayed.

Gunpowder in the Jungle

Early firearms were notoriously unreliable in humid, tropical environments. They misfired frequently, took time to reload, and were less effective than later firearms technology. In actual combat conditions, they provided some psychological advantage but limited tactical superiority.

Armor

The idea that Spanish soldiers wore full metal armor is largely myth. In the heat and humidity of Mexico, metal armor was impractical. Historical records show that about 90% of Spanish soldiers wore no metal armor at all. Many actually adopted the lighter, more practical cotton armor used by Tlaxcalan warriors.

Indigenous Military Sophistication

Aztec and other Mesoamerican warriors were extensively trained from childhood. They had sophisticated military tactics, organized command structures, and effective weapons including obsidian-edged macuahuitl (war clubs) that could decapitate a horse.

This wasn't a clash between advanced Europeans and primitive indigenous people. It was a clash between different but comparably sophisticated military systems.

The Siege of Tenochtitlan: An Indigenous Operation

The final siege of Tenochtitlan, the Aztec capital, located where Mexico City stands today, is often portrayed as a Spanish victory. But the military force conducting the siege was overwhelmingly indigenous.

Thousands of Tlaxcalan warriors conducted the actual siege operations, built the brigantines (boats) that controlled the lake, cut off supply lines, and did the fighting. Spanish commanders directed some operations, but the military force executing the siege was indigenous.

The "Traitor" Narrative

In some Mexican nationalist narratives, the Tlaxcalans are portrayed as traitors who betrayed indigenous Mexico to European colonizers. This framing is historically problematic.

The Tlaxcalans weren't part of the Aztec Empire, they were independent, had been resisting Aztec expansion for generations, and made autonomous decisions based on their own interests. They weren't betraying "indigenous Mexico" because there was no unified indigenous Mexico to betray. There were competing indigenous civilizations with different interests.

Calling the Tlaxcalans traitors erases their agency and imposes a nationalist framework that didn't exist at the time.

Visiting the Sites Today

Living in Mexico City, I've visited Templo Mayor (the ruins of the Aztec main temple), Tlatelolco, Teotihuacan, and numerous other archaeological sites. Understanding the actual history makes these places much more meaningful.

These aren't just sites where "the Spanish conquered the Aztecs." They're places where complex indigenous civilizations competed for power, where strategic alliances shifted the balance of regional politics, and where the actions of indigenous peoples shaped the course of history.

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